Which privilege level do drivers run in on Windows?

Drivers on Windows run at a higher privilege level than regular user-mode applications. They execute in a mode called "kernel mode," which is the highest privilege level in the operating system.

Kernel mode allows drivers to interact directly with hardware and have unrestricted access to system resources. This elevated privilege level enables drivers to perform tasks such as managing hardware devices, controlling system functions, and interacting with the operating system's kernel.

Running in kernel mode provides drivers with the ability to execute privileged instructions, access protected system memory, and perform low-level operations that are not accessible to user-mode applications. This level of access is necessary for drivers to perform their intended functions effectively and efficiently.

However, the elevated privilege level also comes with increased responsibility and potential risks. Drivers operating in kernel mode have direct access to critical system components, making them a potential target for malicious actors. Therefore, it is crucial to develop and test drivers carefully to ensure they are stable, secure, and compatible with the operating system.

Note that on newer versions of Windows, there are additional security mechanisms in place, such as driver signing requirements and driver isolation, to enhance the overall security of the system and protect against unauthorized or malicious driver behavior.